Five of the surveyed languages are spoken in lower hills (in general lower than 500 m above sea level), and seven languages on flat territory. Languages belonging to this type are Sanzhi Dargwa, Hua (Yagaria dialect), Central Alaskan Yupik, Kurtp (9), (22), and Galo (19). Amelioration is a type of semantic change that elevates a word's meaning over time. If a word's original meaning is unclear, it is given new meaning. (1955). Examples were given in (16) and (19) from Galo. A Grammar of the Muna Language. Hatam has even two terms for UP (nyo sloping up, hu vertically up), but only one for DOWN (mu) (Reesink, 1999, pp. Create and find flashcards in record time. MacDonald, L. (1990). In Yakkha, the unmarked forms function as adverbials (12), and the adnominal forms are derived (15). I will also mention a few other languages in which spatial verticality metaphorically maps onto time. Topographical deixis and the Tani languages, in North East Indian Linguistics, Vol. However, we can escape gravity in the sense that we can change the frame of reference from absolute to intrinsic or relative. G. Senft (Canberra: Pacific Linguistics), 127137. The other American languages in my sample that have elevational demonstratives are spoken in rather flat areas (Movima in the Bolivian plains, Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Den languages in Alaska and Greenland). Have a look at the table below to see some examples of extralinguistic and linguistic causes of semantic change. ThoughtCo, Aug. 27, 2020, thoughtco.com/semantic-narrowing-specialization-1692083. My brother is tall. As I already explained, it is sound to expect the absolute use to be the default such that the interpretation of down there in (17) is normally understood in relation to the position of the speaker and not some other ground object because of gravity. In addition, it seems that there are systems that cannot be categorized as truly belonging to the one or to the other type, or should be analyzed as combining both types. Which is not an example of a potential socio-cultural factor? Doctoral dissertation, La Trobe University, Melbourne. Typically this process occurs due to different extralinguistic reasons, such as cultural and worldview changes occurring. Yupno combines MEDIAL and DISTAL but not PROXIMAL with elevationals (Cooperrider et al., 2017, p. 771). Semantic reclamation is often a political and controversial act, as these words become special to one particular group. Because of this (usual) unambiguity of locations along the vertical axis, the anchor point of an observer can shift without difficulty (we will see below what repercussions this has for elevational demonstratives). They can be ordered along the elevational hierarchy (UP/DOWN > LEVEL/ACROSS), which reflects cross-linguistic tendencies in the expression of these values by demonstratives. Semantics of the Inuktitut (Eskimo) spatial deictics. Psychophys. The degree to which the syntactic contexts are expressed by specialized, formally distinct elevational demonstratives varies. Doornenbal, M. (2009). Amelioration is less common than its opposite - pejoration. Verhees, S. (2019). Copyright 2020 Forker. For example, imagine if, in 200 years, the word 'stupid' changes its meaning and refers to someone or something good or even clever. The Dyirbal Language of North Queensland. However, those languages constitute a minority. Table 1 shows the demonstrative system of Muna (Malayo-Polynesian, Sulawesi). Burenhult, N. (2018). Figure 1. Kratchovil, F. (2007). "Semantic Narrowing (Specialization)." Miyaoka, O. Amha, A. Knowing that elephants and giraffes are both mammals. (2012). Broadening can be caused by both extralinguistic and linguistic causes, such as a change in worldview, or linguistic analogy. Charachidz, G. (1981). Doctoral dissertation, Australian National University, Canberra. doi: 10.1515/lingty-2019-0001. Metonymy occurs when the name of an object is substituted for an attribute or adjective. What are Intensifiers in English Grammar? Berlin: de Gruyter. Another important factor to keep in mind when investigating the meaning of elevational demonstratives is scale or domain of use. There are languages in which all distance-based deictics can be combined with all elevationals. By contrast, the direction downward is limited by the ground as are locations near or close to the speaker limited by the position of the speaker.15. Semantic change (also semantic shift, semantic progression, semantic development, or semantic drift) is a form of language change regarding the evolution of word usage usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from the original usage. Definition and Usage of the French Word 'Enchant', Definition and Examples of Word Boundaries, 6 Common Myths About Language and Grammar, Word Play: Having Fun With the Sounds and Meanings of Words, Five Words That May Not Mean What You Think They Mean, Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia, M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester, B.A., English, State University of New York. J. . Munich: Lincom. This meaning partially survives today in expressions such as 'a dizzy blonde', for example. Typol. Therefore, my preliminary conclusion is to agree with Holton (2019) by suggesting that geography is less relevant than language structure and genealogy when it comes to elevational demonstratives. Over time, as jazz music grew in popularity, the word started to be used in other contexts. Only in the latter case the meaning would truly entail an absolute frame. Diessel, H. (1999). Zhirkov, L. I. It is thus possible to suggest some generalizations concerning the areal distribution of elevational demonstratives. Yale does not formally distinguish between adnominal and adverbial elevational demonstratives (and the author of the grammar does not explicitly mention a pronominal or identificational use). In practice, locations above the speaker and above the addressee during a conversation largely coincide. Vertical spatial relations among objects remain largely constant with respect to a moving observer whereas on the transverse (i.e., horizontal) plane spatial relations change more frequently. Lexis and Semantics Summary: Definition and Examples English Lexis and Semantics Summary Lexis and Semantics Summary Lexis and Semantics Summary 5 Paragraph Essay A Hook for an Essay APA Body Paragraph Context Essay Outline Evidence Harvard Hedging Language Used in Academic Writing MHRA Referencing MLA Opinion Opinion vs Fact Plagiarism Quotations Nie wieder prokastinieren mit unseren Lernerinnerungen. Everything you need for your studies in one place. The topographic and elevational morphemes express also directional and locational meanings (e.g., allative). (ii) Topographic elevational demonstrative systems: The location is determined with respect to the geophysical environment. Which word is NOT an example of amelioration? What is the difference between narrowing and broadening? Examples (1)(4) illustrate all four contexts. Hyslop, G. (2017). Table 10. Scott, G. (1978). In addition, I have also shown that elevational meaning per se is not deictic, because it does not depend on the speakers (or addressees) location, but simply relational and needs an anchor point, which can be a location that is independent of speaker or addressee. 47, 253266. In Tidore, the elevational deictic verbs ine upward and tora downward are used in two temporal expressions, namely mulamula ine early morning, at sunrise (morning + upward) and lobino tora early evening, shortly after the sunset prayer (lit. Elevational deixis in Pacaraos Quechua, in Paper Presented at the 52th Annual Meeting of the SLE, Leipzig. According to Schackow (2015, p. 187), the /u/-forms combine with the proximal demonstrative (singular na, non-singular kha), but not with the distal or anaphoric demonstratives (Table 11). I propose that this can be explained in the following way: in the proximal domain, fine grained semantic distinctions are superfluous since this area is accessible to the interlocutors who in the default case of a normal conversation are located in close proximity to each other [(see also Imai, 2003, p. 42) for a similar observation]. In general, demonstratives can be bound and unbound forms, whereby the bound forms are normally clitics and not affixes (Diessel, 1999, p. 2225). Which is not an example of semantic change? Haude, K. (2006). Seyoum, M. (2008). A Grammar of Bantawa. All languages expect for Tanacross and Maale employ elevational demonstratives in the adnominal context, and this is therefore the second most commonly attested type of usage. In relation with that finding one possible direction for future research is to clarify whether the languages with elevational demonstratives, which were discussed in this paper, confirm the Topographic Correspondence Hypothesis. Finally, I have argued that with respect to elevational demonstratives genealogical affiliation is more predictive than areal location. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI. Usually only two opposite cardinal directions are encoded. For example, the original meaning of ambassador was . A Grammar of Tulil. Similarly, by means of the second topographic system of Yakkha the uphill and downhill elevationals can be mapped onto the human body and teeth are then referred to as uphill, i.e., upper teeth and downhill lower teeth irrespectively of their actual position (even when a person is not in the canonical upright position). This means that among the languages studied for this paper there might be languages that are actually not extremely different from English, but for which the author of the grammar has reasons to assume that a morphologically and semantically complex expression translates with, e.g., up-there or upthere, constitutes a single lexical item. You can find out more about our use, change your default settings, and withdraw your consent at any time with effect for the future by visiting Cookies Settings, which can also be found in the footer of the site. In order to be able to accomplish a detailed typological study we need more comprehensive descriptions of language-particular systems that are based on natural corpus data such that not only formal properties are covered but also the actual use and possibly frequency estimations can be detected. (2011). "The word silly is a classic example of pejoration, or gradual worsening of meaning. (2020, August 27). Fig. Aikhenvald, A. In this paper, I concentrate on the semantic and pragmatic properties of elevational demonstratives, more specifically, adnominal, spatial adverbial, and pronominal demonstratives. Elevation refers to a change in the connotations of a word, occuring in one of two ways. For a detailed explication of the concept of frames of reference in spatial language and its three basic types, intrinsic, absolute and relative, see Levinson (2003, pp. Therefore, an object is, for example, located upriver when its location is referred to with topographic demonstratives. These are: narrowing, broadening, amelioration, pejoration, and semantic reclamation. The Manambu Language of East Sepik, Papua New Guinea. The demonstrative system of Makalero (Huber, 2011, p. 232). Uphill and downhill in a flat world: the conceptual topography of the Yupno house. A. Schapper (Berlin: de Gruyter), 115172. (1990). Random House, 2008) Hound and Indigenous Yu, N. (1998). 23, 59106. As you can see with our examples of amelioration, some words in the English language have adapted to the changing times and to certain sociocultural situations. Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere 65, 157167. A fundamental issue in the study of semantic transfer is the relation between language and thought. By registering you get free access to our website and app (available on desktop AND mobile) which will help you to super-charge your learning process. Everything you need for your studies in one place. Levinson, S. C. (2003). Yonder/away (Ngiyambaa, Buru, Tanacross, Koyukon, and Movima). Today, the original meanings of the word are still in use: I'm sorry, I can't come to work today. Nordquist, Richard. The meaning of the word changed, referring to someone's way of thinking instead. In linguistics, amelioration is the upgrading or elevation of a word's meaning, as when a word with a negative sense develops a positive one. Soc. Cognition 46, 223244. In the future, this line of research should be extended to languages with rich demonstrative systems such as the languages discussed in this paper. Utrecht: LOT. Synthetic: A synthetic sentence is one which is not analytic or contradictory, but which may be true or false depending on the way the world is. West Greenlandic. Amelioration is a term that refers to when a word acquires a more positive meaning over time. StudySmarter is commited to creating, free, high quality explainations, opening education to all. However, over the centuries, this changed and by the 1500s, the word became associated with acting foolishly - as it is today! There are two different causes of semantic change. The word 'nice', which used to be negative a long time ago, now clearly has a positive meaning. Holton, G. (2000). The projection can be explained by the fact that due to their upright position human beings have to move the head downward in order to look at proximal items whereas the gaze goes upward in order to look at distal items (see Bickel (1997 and references therein). Tulil (Taulil-Butam) has three morphologically complex demonstrative stems with elevational meaning that can be used for temporal expression (Meng, 2018, pp. These findings are particularly interesting in view of the widely debated use of Mandarin Chinese spatial terms shang upper, up, over, above for past events and xia lower, down, below, under, for future events, which show the opposite metaphorical extension (e.g., Yu, 1998, pp. Ma Manda (FinisterreHuon), has a three-level contrast in elevation (DOWN/UP/LEVEL), in contrast to Tulil, which has only terms for UP and DOWN, co-expressed with distance such that we arrive at six items (Pennington, 2016, pp. G. Senft (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 197220. Stop procrastinating with our study reminders. In order to obtain elevation semantic, we propose a process in two steps that takes advantage of the geometric abstraction: (1) . Linguist. So far, I did not find any language with both LEVEL and ACROSS elevational demonstratives, so these two values seem to exclude each other (although semantically ACROSS can be considered a sub-category of LEVEL). As Table 10 shows, the elevational demonstratives that encode relative proximity and middle distance are morphologically complex in contrast to the elevational demonstratives that encode relative distance. Moreover, Ma Manda speakers gesture upward and downward in accordance with the meaning of the demonstratives when they refer to future and past, respectively. Radden (2003) hypothesizes that the cultural importance of the Yangtze River may have also played a role: the river flows downward and any objects moving on it would be located higher at an earlier period of the journey and lower at a later period [(see also Bender and Beller, 2014, p. 369), who call this the river model of time]. Pejoration involves the process of degenerating meaning over time so that a word takes on more negative connotations. I have proposed that the metaphor can be explained by the direction of the biological growing process of humans, many animals and plants. There are four major types of semantic change. Heeschen, V. (1998). Semantics is/refers to the study of the meaning of words, Semantic change is the term given to how the meanings of words can change over time. The word 'pretty' comes from West Saxon ('prttig'), Kentish ('pretti'), and Mercian ('prettig'). Semantic universals and linguistic relativism. Doctoral dissertation, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam. For instance, Tanacross and other Northern Dene languages have genuine topographic elevational systems (in addition to the general elevational demonstratives) that conventionally extend to the micro level. An old lady with short white hair who usually wears a red coat. If languages have elevationals and person-based deictics, these meanings are more commonly separately expressed as, for instance, in Muna, Daga (Table 9) or Sanzhi Dargwa. (2004). Ukarumpa: SIL. (2008). This is sometimes referred to as semantic generalisation. For example, broadcast originally meant "to cast seeds out"; with the advent of radio and television, the word was extended to indicate the transmission of audio and video signals. Logical semantics is the study of reference (the symbolic relationship between language and real-world objects) and implication (the relationship between two sentences). For instance, terms that express ACROSS can be topographic and refer to locations across a valley at the same altitude of the opposite mountain as in Yakkha (12), or across the river as in Tanacross (13). Co-expression of elevational and basic deictic demonstrative meaning at the synchronic level occurs in Muna (Table 1), Daga (Table 9), Yakkha (Table 11), Iaai (32), (33), Jahai, Abui, Tidore, Sougb, Tulil, Hatam, Fore, Usan, Yale, Dadibi, and Zayse. Reesink, G. P. (1999). Holton, G. (2018). I did not find any other types of landmarks defining topographic elevational demonstratives. A Grammar of Galo. In languages such as Manambu, Sougb, or Nlmwa-Nixumwak, in which the morphemes with the elevational semantics can be readily identified and are sometimes also used with lexical items other than demonstratives (e.g., verbs), the elevationals resemble English non-deictic expressions such as up. Types of Semantic Change-Extension of meaning-Narrowing of meaning-Elevation of meaning-Degradation of meaning 5. Am. 287295). Ratliff, M. (2019). Narrowing is a process where over time, a word's meaning becomes more specific. It is important to keep in mind, however, that these verbal metaphors are not necessarily indications or proofs that speakers of those languages have a vertical mental time line. The Maale Language. Linguist. In Sougb the equation is the opposite, namely UP = west and DOWN = east (26). The original meaning of 'attitude' was 'position, pose'. Semantic Narrowing (Specialization). Fig. Narrowing is when the meaning of a word becomes more specialised whereas broadening happens when a word's meaning changes to be more generalised. The distinction between general and topographic elevational demonstratives applies not just to the UP and DOWN meanings but also to LEVEL and ACROSS. A Grammar of Kurtp. It is caused by extralinguistic factors typically. In an absolute frame of reference, there is also a binary relation, but this time between the ground and independently given salient geographical landmarks or cardinal directions that serve as anchoring points (e.g., north of X). doi: 10.1075/clscc.6.08pal. "Amelioration (word meanings)." Based on these considerations, the items under investigation can be divided into three basic types:6. (2012). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ngiyambaa. From Space to Time: Temporal Adverbials in the Worlds Languages. They can be morphologically simple and complex. The elevational values in both subsets are obligatorily co-expressed with the deictic meaning DISTAL. Consider these two examples that reveal the two different meanings we associate the word 'lady' with: Of course she only drinks champagne and wears silk - she is a proper lady! You're sick! In the context of this sentence, the word 'sick' means 'corrupt, troubled'. Example #5: Night (By William Blake) We can find use of semantic features in poetry more elaborately, as these features describe the meanings of sentences, phrases, and words, and make relations between them. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). There are many examples of semantic change that can be found in our day-to-day speech! In Old and Middle English, the term was used to mean that someone was happy, or spiritually blessed. 41, 768799. On the expression of spatio-temporal relations in language, in Universals of Human Language, Vol. Dr. Richard Nordquist is professor emeritus of rhetoric and English at Georgia Southern University and the author of several university-level grammar and composition textbooks. 15 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01712/full#supplementary-material, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), Department of Caucasus Studies, Friedrich-Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany. J. Pers. Bril (2004, p. 120) provides another example from Nlmwa-Nixumwak (Oceanic), where so-called directionals, which are regularly added to deictic or anaphoric suffixes, which, in turn, are added to pronouns or determiners to form demonstratives, can be used for respectful reference to people of a higher social status. Doctoral dissertation, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam. An Ethnographic Grammar of the Eipo Language Spoken in the Central Mountains of Irian Jaya (West New Guinea), Indonesia. Languages have a plethora of linguistic means to express locations of objects along the vertical axis, e.g., A is above/over B, A is higher than B, A can be upward, uphill, up the road with respect to B. Leiden: Brill. doi: 10.1006/cogp.2001.0748. An example in point comes from Yakkha, which has two types of topographic elevational adverbials of which elevational demonstratives are formed (see Table 11 for the first type). 39, 51; Diessel, 2012, p. 2,421). Spatial coordinate systems in demonstrative meaning. In Daga, there seems to exist a correlation such that FUTURE/PAST = UP because yampoa utu-pa (third up.there-out.of.sight) means next Wednesday and wataget utu-p (before up.there-out.of.sight) means long ago (Murane, 1974, pp. This occurs when two words are consistently used together in a sentence until they acquire the same meaning. Diessel, H. (2013). Holton (2019), who discusses the Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Den languages spoken in the Artic, which is generally rather flat, notes that even though the Alaska territory includes some of the highest mountains in North America, the speakers of Na-Den languages, which have elevational demonstrative, do not live in the mountains. With respect to the topic of this paper the category of deixis comes into play because the items examined are either categorized as demonstratives themselves or as parts (bound roots, affixes, or clitics) of demonstratives. In the Caucasus, only East Caucasian languages, and in Ethiopian Highlands only some Omotic languages possess elevational demonstratives. . The meaning of a word may also become taboo or is used as a euphemism, eg. Khasi, a Language of Assam. It also goes beyond more specific surveys such as Post (2011, 2017) and Schapper (2014), which devote considerable space to elevationals, but focus on particular linguistic areas/languages families. The opposite of broadening is a process called narrowing. However, by the 1800s, the process of amelioration had changed this, and the word came to mean that someone was kind and thoughtful. For unknown locations, the LEVEL items can be used as default demonstratives. What did the word `` knight '' mean in Old English? Lexical semantics is the analysis of word meaning. The first two equations are also found in Bantawa. But several descriptions explicitly mention that the anchor point serving as the ground (=deictic center) for elevational demonstratives can easily shift, e.g., in a story it shifts to a protagonist or to another salient inanimate anchor point [Tulil as analyzed by Meng (2018) and Ma Manda as examined in Pennington (2016)].12. The more specific value ACROSS (8 languages) occurs only around half as often as LEVEL (19 languages). However, over the years, the meaning of this word broadened to refer to any type of work or job. 3, eds G. Hyslop, S. Morey, and M. W. Post (Delhi: Foundation Books), 137154. Murane, E. (1974). A psycholinguistic exploration of a primary metaphor, in Trends in Cognitive Linguistics: Theoretical and Applied Models, eds J. Valenzuela, A. Rojo, and C. Soriano (Frankfurt: Peter Lang), 3150. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/amelioration-word-meanings-1689082. It may also be referred to as semantic amelioration or semantic elevation. (1989). Evidence for sociotopography. Literally means "using formal methods for the study of meaning." 2.Semantic change, also known as semantic shift or semantic progression) that describes the . Changes in the referents (what is being referred to), Disguising language / misnomers (i.e. This means that one of the three demonstratives expresses proximity to the hearer, and therefore the deictic center is not the speaker, but the hearer. MA thesis, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX. Stud. Table 3. (i) Co-expression of elevational and demonstrative meaning in a single morpheme. Lang. Extension of Meaning - Generalization of Meaning It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader concept. The elevation of meaning refers to the derogatory meaning and neutral meaning change into commendatory meaning. The structure of Eipo demonstratives (Heeschen, 1982, pp. The elevational demonstrative systems of the 50 surveyed languages have been coded for a number of formal and semantic properties. . Similarly, in Eipo, Sougb, Nlmwa-Nixumwak, and Abui7 deictic motion verbs can attach the elevationals. The structure of Yakkha demonstratives,/u/-forms (Schackow, 2015, pp. doi: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2013.12.001, Denny, J. P. (1982). This type of co-expression or combination of distance and elevation in demonstratives is not obligatory because there are languages such as Makalero (Table 3), Hatam, Iaai, Hua, Tidore, and Baskeet (8), in which elevational demonstratives are unmarked for distance and cannot be co-expressed with distance. van den Berg, R. (1989/2013). Lang. Most of the meanings are well-known from the literature on demonstratives (see, e.g., the lists by Diessel, 1999, p. 51; Dixon, 2003; Imai, 2003; Levinson, 2018, p. 35). Sociocultural factors can influence narrowing as a major shift in a country's politics or social landscape will lead to semantic changes. (2014). Second, the descriptions lack a solid proof of the absolute frame of reference as opposed to the relative or intrinsic frame. A Reference Grammar of Southeastern Tepehuan. These changes occur for either extralinguistic or linguistic reasons. On the development of elevation deictics in Hmong-Mien, in Paper Presented at the 52th Annual Meeting of the SLE, Leipzig. This additional semantic component is either not expressed by a separate morpheme and then part of the basic demonstrative stem, or it is expressed by a separate morpheme. TEST IV: 1. is about the meaning of syntactically complex expressions. Another example of semantic change is the word 'nice'. In their demonstrative systems, languages repeatedly combine elevation with distance. Spatial deixis in Muna (Sulawesi), in Studies in Austronesian and Papuan Languages, ed. Linguistic causes of semantic change are factors that occur within the system of the language spoken. Semantic change can be caused by extralinguistic or linguistic causes. The expression of space in grammars of natural languages is ubiquitous and spatial language has been investigated for decades within many different linguistic subdisciplines and by means of various approaches and frameworks. Kewapi (Enga-Kewa-Huli, Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea) has a rich set of 13 demonstratives of which nine co-express elevational meanings, and relative distance and at the same time additional distance from the speaker (away from the speaker) (Table 10; Yarapea, 2006, pp. (1982). 1, first person; 2, second person; 3, third person; A, most agent-like argument of a transitive verb; ABL, ablative; ABS, absolutive; ACC, accusative; ACT.FOC, action focus; ADD, additive focus; ART, article; AZR, adjectivalizer; CERT, certainty; CLF, nominal class; CMPL, completive aspect; COMP, comparative; COOR, coordinator; COP, copula; CQ, content question; CTR, contrastive; CURR.REL, current relevance; D, d-classifier; DAT, dative; DEM, demonstrative; DERIV, derivational affix; DOWN, down(ward); DST, distal; DU dual, number; DUR, durative; DXVB, deictic verb; EMPH, emphasis; EXIS, existential; F, feminine; FUT, future; GEN, genitive; H, hearer; IMP, imperative; INCL, inclusive; INST, instrumental; IPFV, imperfective; IRR, irrealis; ITER, iterative; LOC, locative; M, masculine; MAN, manner; MIR, mirative; N, neuter; NMLZ, nominalizer; NON.FUT, non-future; NPST, non-past; NSG, non-singular; PFV, perfective; PL, plural; PN, proper name; POL, polite; PROG, progressive; PROX, proximal; PROXH, hearer-proximal; PROXS, speaker-proximal; PRS, present; PRT, particle; PST, past tense; PURP, purposive; REL, marker of relative clause; REMPST, remote past tense; REP, reported; RN.TOP, relator noun with the meaning top; S, speaker; SG, singular; SR, subordinator; SUB, subject; SUBJ, subject cross-referencing; TAG, tag particle; TOPIC, topic; TSR, temporal subordinator; UP, up(ward); VIS, visible; VOC, vocative.

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